l have to be redone."
David Hofmann of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration centre , which also studies CO2 , was more cautious. " I don't think an increase of 2 ppm for two years in a row is highly significant-there are climatic perturbations that can make this occur, "he said . "But the absence of a known climatic event does make these years unusual . Based on those two years alone I would say it was too soon to say that a new trend has been established, but it warrants close scrutiny."
4.Why has the change in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over the past two years raised fear and concern among climate scientists?
5. What is "runaway greenhouse effect"(para.4)? What is "carbon sink "(para.5)
6. Explain briefly Tom Burke's warning "We're watching the clock and the clock is beginning to tick faster, like it seems to before a bomb goes off. "( para.6)
7. What are the major explanations for the change in CO2 over the past two years?
Questions 8-10
It was one of those statement that everyone remembers decades after the event. The year was 1998. Russia had defaulted on s40 billion in domestic debt, and foreign investors who were heavy buyers of those bonds were licking their wounds. An angry banker declared that Westerners would "eat nuclear waste" before sinking money into Russia again . Just six years later, Russian bonds are again a hot property, Moscow is considered one of the world's most reliable borrowers, and two of the three international rating agencies have given Russia an investment-grade seal of approval. Among Russia's biggest cheerleaders? Western investors.
Oh Nov. 18. Fitch Ratings upped its long -tern rating for Russian government bonds by one notch, to an investment grade BBB-. That came a little more than a year after Moody's investors Service also raised Russia's bonds to investment grade. "Russia has turned in a phenomenal macroeconomic performance, surpassing our bullish expectations. "F itch's lead Russia analyst Parker told investors on Nov. 19.
It's no secret why Russia's fortunes have turned around so dramatically. Oil and gas account for 55% of Russia's export-and with oil prices around $50 a barrel, the country earned $14.5 billion from black gold. This year, with production bolstered by huge investment and rising prices, it is expected to pull in $78 billion. Moscow's foreign-currency reserves now total $113 billion-a nine fold increase since the end of 1999and a comfortable cushion against any new crisis.
But if Russia has been lucky, it has also made the most of its luck. In the past five years, president Putin's economic managers, led by Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin, have taken full advantage of their oil and gas windfall to get government expenditures in hand and fashion a functioning tax system. "Kudrin has delivered a first-rate fiscal policy. It's under his watch we've gone from being a bankrupt nation to an investment-grade net creditor." Says Al Breach, chief economist at Moscow investment bank Brunswick UBS.
The sea of oil has allowed Russia to reduce its foreign debt from almost 100% of gross domestic product in 1999 to about 32% today. Fitch predicts general government debt will fall to 25% of GDP by the end of the year, well below the 40% benchmark it considers normal for a BBB rating. Meanwhile, kudrin is socking away surplus oil revenues in a newly created "stabilization fund" designed to protect the budget against a fall in prices. The fund has already accumulated $19 billion.
Of course, not all the financial news from Russia is positive. Putin's deliberate destruction of Russia's biggest oil company. Yukos, has had investors wringing their hands. And while economist give Russia high marks for fiscal management, they're less flattering when it comes to structural issues such as banking reform and deregulation. "it's a well-managed oil story. Rather than a reform story." Says peter Westin, chief economist at Aton Capital. A Moscow brokerage.
These concerns explain why the third major rating agency, standard & Poor's, has so far held out against giving Russian bonds an investment grade. While Fitch's announcement is encouraging. An upgrade from S&P is far mor important because the key benchmark for international bond investors. The lehman Aggregate Bond Index. Requires investment-grade rating from Moody's and S&P before a country's bonds can be included. Large U.S. institutional investors track the Lehman index. These investors may not have long to wait. Russia's financial situation is so solid that analysts are convinced and an S&P upgrade is just months away.
8. Why do western investors change their attitude toward Russia within a period of six years? Give a brief introduction of Russia's economy over the past years.
9. Explain the sentence "But if Russia has been lucky, it has also made the most of its luck." (paa.4)
10. What does chief economist peter Westin mean when he says "it's a well-managed oil story, rather than a reform story." (para.5)
SECTION 6: LISTENING TEST (30 minutes)
Directions: Translate the following passage into English and writ your version in the corresponding space in your ANSWER BOOKLET.
他在父亲的教导下"发愤用功"，其实他读书还是出于喜好，只似馋嘴佬贪吃美食：食肠很大，不择精粗，甜咸杂进。极俗的书他也能看得哈哈大笑。戏曲里的插科打诨，他不仅且看且笑，还一再搬演，笑得打跌。精微深奥的哲学、美学、文艺理论等大部著作，他像小儿吃零食那样吃了又吃。厚厚的书一本本渐次吃完。诗歌更是他喜好的读物。重得拿不动的大词典、辞典、百科全书等，他不仅挨着字母逐条细读，见了新版本，还不嫌其烦地把新条目增补在旧书上。他看书常做些笔记。
